Analysis of the symptoms and possible causes of herbicide phytotoxicity on golf courses

This paper aims to provide a theoretical basis for the prevention of herbicide injuries to golf course turfs by analyzing the symptoms and possible causes of herbicide phytotoxicity. We proposed a ranking standard for golf course herbicides using the results of our investigation into the phytotoxicity of turf herbicides in China's golf courses, as well as reference to the ranking standards of field crop herbicide phytotoxicity, and the requirements for golf course maintenance. Combined with literature analysis, the differences in the mode of action of herbicides were used to clarify the symptoms of acute and chronic phytotoxicity caused by herbicides with different modes of action. Similar phytotoxicity symptoms caused by non-herbicides were analyzed as well. The intrinsic factors of the herbicide itself, the external factors of the environmental climate, and human factors of miss-selection and misuse of herbicides often lead to adverse selection or target dislocation of herbicides. Intrinsic factors include time and location differences, morphology, as well as physiological and biochemical adverse selection; the external factors include environmental effects, herbicide residues, climatic stresses, and reverse effects of turf pests; human factors include herbicide impurity interference, miss-selected herbicide, misapplication, and mismanagement. Multi-interaction was a common cause of herbicide-induced golf course turf injury. We recommend further research on the prevention of turf injury on golf courses, in order to minimize herbicide phytotoxicity.