Roles of plant growth regulators during abiotic stress responses of turfgrass and forage

Plant growth, development, and metabolism are severely affected under abiotic stress conditions. Exogenous plant hormones and small molecule compounds improve the growths of turfgrass and forages and alleviate damages caused by abiotic stresses. This review summarizes the effects of plant hormones, plant growth regulators, osmolytes, ions, amino acids, and gaseous molecules on the abiotic stress responses of turfgrass and forage. These compounds functioned antagonistically or synergistically to modulate downstream gene expression, regulate physiological pathways, detoxify reactive oxygen species, mitigate cell membrane damage, and regulate compartmentation of toxic ion, resulting in delayed senescence, increased abiotic stress tolerance, and improved turf quality. Future studies are proposed based on the progress of model plants.